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Mourning Dove

Zenaida macroura

Summary 85

The mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) is a member of the dove family, Columbidae. The bird is also known as the American mourning dove or the rain dove, and erroneously as the turtle dove, and was once known as the Carolina pigeon or Carolina turtledove. It is one of the most abundant and widespread of all North American birds. It is also a leading gamebird, with more than 20 million birds (up to 70 million in some years)...

As a symbol and in the arts 86

The eastern mourning dove (Z. m. carolinensis) is Wisconsin's official symbol of peace. The bird is also Michigan's state bird of peace.

The mourning dove appears as the Carolina turtle-dove on plate 286 of Audubon's Birds of America.

References to mourning doves appear frequently in Native American literature. Mourning Dove was the pen name of Christine Quintasket, one of the first published Native American women authors. Mourning dove imagery also turns up in contemporary American and Canadian poetry in the work of poets as diverse as Robert Bly, Jared Carter, Lorine Niedecker, and Charles Wright.

The Mexican song Cucurrucucú paloma imitates the call of a mourning dove.

As a symbol and in the arts 86

The eastern mourning dove (Z. m. carolinensis) is Wisconsin's official symbol of peace. The bird is also Michigan's state bird of peace.

The mourning dove appears as the Carolina turtle-dove on plate 286 of Audubon's Birds of America.

References to mourning doves appear frequently in Native American literature. Mourning Dove was the pen name of Christine Quintasket, one of the first published Native American women authors. Mourning dove imagery also turns up in contemporary American and Canadian poetry in the work of poets as diverse as Robert Bly, Jared Carter, Lorine Niedecker, and Charles Wright.

The Mexican song Cucurrucucú paloma imitates the call of a mourning dove.

Behaviour and ecology 86

Mourning doves sunbathe or rainbathe by lying on the ground or on a flat tree limb, leaning over, stretching one wing, and keeping this posture for up to twenty minutes. These birds can also waterbathe in shallow pools or bird baths. Dustbathing is common as well.

Outside the breeding season, mourning doves roost communally in dense deciduous trees or in conifers. During sleep, the head rests between the shoulders, close to the body; it is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as in many other species. During the winter in Canada, roosting flights to the roosts in the evening, and out of the roosts in the morning, are delayed on colder days.

Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male, followed by a graceful, circular glide with outstretched wings and head down. After landing, the male will approach the female with a puffed-out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Mated pairs will often preen each other's feathers.

The male then leads the female to potential nest sites, and the female will choose one. The female dove builds the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male will stand on the female's back and give the material to the female, who then builds it into the nest. The nest is constructed of twigs, conifer needles, or grass blades, and is of flimsy construction. Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves, other birds, or arboreal mammals such as squirrels.

Most nests are in trees, both deciduous and coniferous. Sometimes, they can be found in shrubs, vines, or on artificial constructs like buildings, or hanging flower pots. When there is no suitable elevated object, mourning doves will nest on the ground.

The clutch size is almost always two eggs. Occasionally, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest. The eggs are white, 6.6 ml (0.23 imp fl oz; 0.22 US fl oz), 2.57–2.96 cm (1.01–1.17 in) long, 2.06–2.30 cm (0.81–0.91 in) wide, 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) at laying (5–6% of female body mass). Both sexes incubate, the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves are devoted parents; nests are very rarely left unattended by the adults. When flushed from the nest, an incubating parent may perform a nest-distraction display, or a broken-wing display, fluttering on the ground as if injured, then flying away when the predator approaches it.

Egg in nest

Nesting in progress

Squabs

A juvenile

Incubation takes two weeks. The hatched young, called squabs, are strongly altricial, being helpless at hatching and covered with down. Both parents feed the squabs pigeon's milk (dove's milk) for the first 3–4 days of life. Thereafter, the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds. Fledging takes place in about 11–15 days, before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food. They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging.

Mourning doves are prolific breeders. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season. This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high. Each year, mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.

The mourning dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds. Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season, and sometimes may remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary.

Like other columbines, the mourning dove drinks by suction, without lifting or tilting its head. It often gathers at drinking spots around dawn and dusk.

Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds, which make up more than 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat snails or insects. Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their crops and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow grit such as fine gravel or sand to assist with digestion. The species usually forages on the ground, walking but not hopping. At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird, with a preference for rapeseed, corn, millet, safflower, and sunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, though they will push aside ground litter; instead they eat what is readily visible. They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there.

Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others. Foods taken in preference to others include pine nuts, sweetgum seeds, and the seeds of pokeberry, amaranth, canary grass, corn, sesame, and wheat. When their favorite foods are absent, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, including buckwheat, rye, goosegrass and smartweed.

Behaviour and ecology 86

Mourning doves sunbathe or rainbathe by lying on the ground or on a flat tree limb, leaning over, stretching one wing, and keeping this posture for up to twenty minutes. These birds can also waterbathe in shallow pools or bird baths. Dustbathing is common as well.

Outside the breeding season, mourning doves roost communally in dense deciduous trees or in conifers. During sleep, the head rests between the shoulders, close to the body; it is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as in many other species. During the winter in Canada, roosting flights to the roosts in the evening, and out of the roosts in the morning, are delayed on colder days.

Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male, followed by a graceful, circular glide with outstretched wings and head down. After landing, the male will approach the female with a puffed-out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Mated pairs will often preen each other's feathers.

The male then leads the female to potential nest sites, and the female will choose one. The female dove builds the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male will stand on the female's back and give the material to the female, who then builds it into the nest. The nest is constructed of twigs, conifer needles, or grass blades, and is of flimsy construction. Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves, other birds, or arboreal mammals such as squirrels.

Most nests are in trees, both deciduous and coniferous. Sometimes, they can be found in shrubs, vines, or on artificial constructs like buildings, or hanging flower pots. When there is no suitable elevated object, mourning doves will nest on the ground.

The clutch size is almost always two eggs. Occasionally, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest. The eggs are white, 6.6 ml (0.23 imp fl oz; 0.22 US fl oz), 2.57–2.96 cm (1.01–1.17 in) long, 2.06–2.30 cm (0.81–0.91 in) wide, 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) at laying (5–6% of female body mass). Both sexes incubate, the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves are devoted parents; nests are very rarely left unattended by the adults. When flushed from the nest, an incubating parent may perform a nest-distraction display, or a broken-wing display, fluttering on the ground as if injured, then flying away when the predator approaches it.

Egg in nest

Nesting in progress

Squabs

A juvenile

Incubation takes two weeks. The hatched young, called squabs, are strongly altricial, being helpless at hatching and covered with down. Both parents feed the squabs pigeon's milk (dove's milk) for the first 3–4 days of life. Thereafter, the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds. Fledging takes place in about 11–15 days, before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food. They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging.

Mourning doves are prolific breeders. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season. This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high. Each year, mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.

The mourning dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds. Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season, and sometimes may remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary.

Like other columbines, the mourning dove drinks by suction, without lifting or tilting its head. It often gathers at drinking spots around dawn and dusk.

Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds, which make up more than 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat snails or insects. Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their crops and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow grit such as fine gravel or sand to assist with digestion. The species usually forages on the ground, walking but not hopping. At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird, with a preference for rapeseed, corn, millet, safflower, and sunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, though they will push aside ground litter; instead they eat what is readily visible. They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there.

Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others. Foods taken in preference to others include pine nuts, sweetgum seeds, and the seeds of pokeberry, amaranth, canary grass, corn, sesame, and wheat. When their favorite foods are absent, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, including buckwheat, rye, goosegrass and smartweed.

Breeding 86

Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male, followed by a graceful, circular glide with outstretched wings and head down. After landing, the male will approach the female with a puffed-out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Mated pairs will often preen each other's feathers.

The male then leads the female to potential nest sites, and the female will choose one. The female dove builds the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male will stand on the female's back and give the material to the female, who then builds it into the nest. The nest is constructed of twigs, conifer needles, or grass blades, and is of flimsy construction. Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves, other birds, or arboreal mammals such as squirrels.

Most nests are in trees, both deciduous and coniferous. Sometimes, they can be found in shrubs, vines, or on artificial constructs like buildings, or hanging flower pots. When there is no suitable elevated object, mourning doves will nest on the ground.

The clutch size is almost always two eggs. Occasionally, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest. The eggs are white, 6.6 ml (0.23 imp fl oz; 0.22 US fl oz), 2.57–2.96 cm (1.01–1.17 in) long, 2.06–2.30 cm (0.81–0.91 in) wide, 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) at laying (5–6% of female body mass). Both sexes incubate, the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves are devoted parents; nests are very rarely left unattended by the adults. When flushed from the nest, an incubating parent may perform a nest-distraction display, or a broken-wing display, fluttering on the ground as if injured, then flying away when the predator approaches it.

Egg in nest

Nesting in progress

Squabs

A juvenile

Incubation takes two weeks. The hatched young, called squabs, are strongly altricial, being helpless at hatching and covered with down. Both parents feed the squabs pigeon's milk (dove's milk) for the first 3–4 days of life. Thereafter, the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds. Fledging takes place in about 11–15 days, before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food. They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging.

Mourning doves are prolific breeders. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season. This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high. Each year, mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.

The mourning dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds. Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season, and sometimes may remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary.

Breeding 86

Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male, followed by a graceful, circular glide with outstretched wings and head down. After landing, the male will approach the female with a puffed-out breast, bobbing head, and loud calls. Mated pairs will often preen each other's feathers.

The male then leads the female to potential nest sites, and the female will choose one. The female dove builds the nest. The male will fly about, gather material, and bring it to her. The male will stand on the female's back and give the material to the female, who then builds it into the nest. The nest is constructed of twigs, conifer needles, or grass blades, and is of flimsy construction. Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves, other birds, or arboreal mammals such as squirrels.

Most nests are in trees, both deciduous and coniferous. Sometimes, they can be found in shrubs, vines, or on artificial constructs like buildings, or hanging flower pots. When there is no suitable elevated object, mourning doves will nest on the ground.

The clutch size is almost always two eggs. Occasionally, however, a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair, leading to three or four eggs in the nest. The eggs are white, 6.6 ml (0.23 imp fl oz; 0.22 US fl oz), 2.57–2.96 cm (1.01–1.17 in) long, 2.06–2.30 cm (0.81–0.91 in) wide, 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) at laying (5–6% of female body mass). Both sexes incubate, the male from morning to afternoon, and the female the rest of the day and at night. Mourning doves are devoted parents; nests are very rarely left unattended by the adults. When flushed from the nest, an incubating parent may perform a nest-distraction display, or a broken-wing display, fluttering on the ground as if injured, then flying away when the predator approaches it.

Egg in nest

Nesting in progress

Squabs

A juvenile

Incubation takes two weeks. The hatched young, called squabs, are strongly altricial, being helpless at hatching and covered with down. Both parents feed the squabs pigeon's milk (dove's milk) for the first 3–4 days of life. Thereafter, the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds. Fledging takes place in about 11–15 days, before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food. They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging.

Mourning doves are prolific breeders. In warmer areas, these birds may raise up to six broods in a season. This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high. Each year, mortality can reach 58% a year for adults and 69% for the young.

The mourning dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds. Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season, and sometimes may remain together throughout the winter. However, lone doves will find new partners if necessary.

Conservation status 86

The number of individual mourning doves is estimated to be approximately 475 million. The large population and its vast range explain why the mourning dove is considered to be of least concern, meaning that the species is not at immediate risk. As a gamebird, the mourning dove is well-managed, with more than 20 million (and up to 40–70 million) shot by hunters each year. However, more recent reporting cautions that mourning doves are in decline in the western United States, and susceptible everywhere in the country due to lead poisoning as they eat spent shot left over in hunting fields. In some cases the fields are specifically planted with a favored seed plant to lure them to those sites.

Conservation status 86

The number of individual mourning doves is estimated to be approximately 475 million. The large population and its vast range explain why the mourning dove is considered to be of least concern, meaning that the species is not at immediate risk. As a gamebird, the mourning dove is well-managed, with more than 20 million (and up to 40–70 million) shot by hunters each year. However, more recent reporting cautions that mourning doves are in decline in the western United States, and susceptible everywhere in the country due to lead poisoning as they eat spent shot left over in hunting fields. In some cases the fields are specifically planted with a favored seed plant to lure them to those sites.

Description 86

The mourning dove is a medium-sized, slender dove approximately 31 cm (12 in) in length. Mourning doves weigh 112–170 g (4.0–6.0 oz), usually closer to 128 g (4.5 oz). The mourning dove has a wingspan of 37-45 cm. The elliptical wings are broad, and the head is rounded. Its tail is long and tapered ("macroura" comes from the Greek words for "large" and "tail"). Mourning doves have perching feet, with three toes forward and one reversed. The legs are short and reddish colored. The beak is short and dark, usually a brown-black hue.

The plumage is generally light gray-brown and lighter and pinkish below. The wings have black spotting, and the outer tail feathers are white, contrasting with the black inners. Below the eye is a distinctive crescent-shaped area of dark feathers. The eyes are dark, with light skin surrounding them. The adult male has bright purple-pink patches on the neck sides, with light pink coloring reaching the breast. The crown of the adult male is a distinctly bluish-grey color. Females are similar in appearance, but with more brown coloring overall and a little smaller than the male. The iridescent feather patches on the neck above the shoulders are nearly absent, but can be quite vivid on males. Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance, and are generally darker.

Feather colors are generally believed to be relatively static, changing only by small amounts over periods of months. However, a recent study argues that since feathers are neither innervated nor vascularized, color changes must be caused by external stimuli. Researchers analyzed the ways in which feathers of iridescent mourning doves responded to stimulus changes of adding and evaporating water. As a result, it was discovered that iridescent feather color changed hue, became more chromatic, and increased in overall reflectance by almost 50%. Transmission electron microscopy and transfer matrix thin-film models revealed that color is produced by thin-film interference from a single layer of keratin around the edge of feather barbules, under which lies a layer of air and melanosomes. Once the environmental conditions were changed, the most striking morphological difference was a twisting of colored barbules that exposed more of their surface area for reflection, which explains the observed increase in brightness. Overall, the researchers suggest that some plumage colors may be more changeable than previously thought possible.

All five subspecies of the mourning dove look similar and are not easily distinguishable. The nominate subspecies possesses shorter wings, and is darker and more buff-colored than the "average" mourning dove. Z. m. carolinensis has longer wings and toes, a shorter beak, and is darker in color. The western subspecies has longer wings, a longer beak, shorter toes, and is more muted and lighter in color. The Panama mourning dove has shorter wings and legs, a longer beak, and is grayer in color. The Clarion Island subspecies possesses larger feet, a larger beak, and is darker brown in color.

This species' call is a distinctive, plaintive cooOOoo-woo-woo-woooo, uttered by males to attract females, and may be mistaken for the call of an owl at first. (Close up, a grating or throat-rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo.) Other sounds include a nest call (cooOOoo) by paired males to attract their mates to the nest sites, a greeting call (a soft ork) by males upon rejoining their mates, and an alarm call (a short roo-oo) by either male or female when threatened. In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear. The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take-off and landing.

Description 86

The mourning dove is a medium-sized, slender dove approximately 31 cm (12 in) in length. Mourning doves weigh 112–170 g (4.0–6.0 oz), usually closer to 128 g (4.5 oz). The mourning dove has a wingspan of 37-45 cm. The elliptical wings are broad, and the head is rounded. Its tail is long and tapered ("macroura" comes from the Greek words for "large" and "tail"). Mourning doves have perching feet, with three toes forward and one reversed. The legs are short and reddish colored. The beak is short and dark, usually a brown-black hue.

The plumage is generally light gray-brown and lighter and pinkish below. The wings have black spotting, and the outer tail feathers are white, contrasting with the black inners. Below the eye is a distinctive crescent-shaped area of dark feathers. The eyes are dark, with light skin surrounding them. The adult male has bright purple-pink patches on the neck sides, with light pink coloring reaching the breast. The crown of the adult male is a distinctly bluish-grey color. Females are similar in appearance, but with more brown coloring overall and a little smaller than the male. The iridescent feather patches on the neck above the shoulders are nearly absent, but can be quite vivid on males. Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance, and are generally darker.

Feather colors are generally believed to be relatively static, changing only by small amounts over periods of months. However, a recent study argues that since feathers are neither innervated nor vascularized, color changes must be caused by external stimuli. Researchers analyzed the ways in which feathers of iridescent mourning doves responded to stimulus changes of adding and evaporating water. As a result, it was discovered that iridescent feather color changed hue, became more chromatic, and increased in overall reflectance by almost 50%. Transmission electron microscopy and transfer matrix thin-film models revealed that color is produced by thin-film interference from a single layer of keratin around the edge of feather barbules, under which lies a layer of air and melanosomes. Once the environmental conditions were changed, the most striking morphological difference was a twisting of colored barbules that exposed more of their surface area for reflection, which explains the observed increase in brightness. Overall, the researchers suggest that some plumage colors may be more changeable than previously thought possible.

All five subspecies of the mourning dove look similar and are not easily distinguishable. The nominate subspecies possesses shorter wings, and is darker and more buff-colored than the "average" mourning dove. Z. m. carolinensis has longer wings and toes, a shorter beak, and is darker in color. The western subspecies has longer wings, a longer beak, shorter toes, and is more muted and lighter in color. The Panama mourning dove has shorter wings and legs, a longer beak, and is grayer in color. The Clarion Island subspecies possesses larger feet, a larger beak, and is darker brown in color.

This species' call is a distinctive, plaintive cooOOoo-woo-woo-woooo, uttered by males to attract females, and may be mistaken for the call of an owl at first. (Close up, a grating or throat-rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo.) Other sounds include a nest call (cooOOoo) by paired males to attract their mates to the nest sites, a greeting call (a soft ork) by males upon rejoining their mates, and an alarm call (a short roo-oo) by either male or female when threatened. In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear. The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take-off and landing.

Distribution and habitat 86

The mourning dove has a large range of nearly 11,000,000 km2 (4,200,000 sq mi). The species is resident throughout the Greater Antilles, most of Mexico, the Continental United States, southern Canada, and the Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda. Much of the Canadian prairie sees these birds in summer only, and southern Central America sees them in winter only. The species is a vagrant in northern Canada, Alaska, and South America. It has been spotted as an accidental at least seven times in the Western Palearctic with records from the British Isles (5), the Azores (1) and Iceland (1). In 1963, the mourning dove was introduced to Hawaii, and in 1998 there was still a small population in North Kona. The mourning dove also appeared on Socorro Island, off the western coast of Mexico, in 1988, sixteen years after the Socorro dove was extirpated from that island.

The mourning dove occupies a wide variety of open and semi-open habitats, such as urban areas, farms, prairie, grassland, and lightly wooded areas. It avoids swamps and thick forest. The species has adapted well to areas altered by humans. They commonly nest in trees in cities or near farmsteads.

Most mourning doves migrate along flyways over land. On rare occasions, mourning doves have been seen flying over the Gulf of Mexico, but this appears to be exceptional. Mourning doves (Z. m. carolinensis) are native to the North Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda, approximately 1,044 km (649 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (the nearest landfall); 1,236 km (768 mi) south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia; and 1,538 km (956 mi) due north of the British Virgin Islands, from which they had been migratory, but since the 1950s have become year-round residents.

Spring migration north runs from March to May. Fall migration south runs from September to November, with immatures moving first, followed by adult females and then by adult males. Migration is usually during the day, in flocks, and at low altitudes. However, not all individuals migrate. Even in Canada some mourning doves remain through winter, sustained by the presence of bird feeders.

Distribution and habitat 86

The mourning dove has a large range of nearly 11,000,000 km2 (4,200,000 sq mi). The species is resident throughout the Greater Antilles, most of Mexico, the Continental United States, southern Canada, and the Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda. Much of the Canadian prairie sees these birds in summer only, and southern Central America sees them in winter only. The species is a vagrant in northern Canada, Alaska, and South America. It has been spotted as an accidental at least seven times in the Western Palearctic with records from the British Isles (5), the Azores (1) and Iceland (1). In 1963, the mourning dove was introduced to Hawaii, and in 1998 there was still a small population in North Kona. The mourning dove also appeared on Socorro Island, off the western coast of Mexico, in 1988, sixteen years after the Socorro dove was extirpated from that island.

The mourning dove occupies a wide variety of open and semi-open habitats, such as urban areas, farms, prairie, grassland, and lightly wooded areas. It avoids swamps and thick forest. The species has adapted well to areas altered by humans. They commonly nest in trees in cities or near farmsteads.

Most mourning doves migrate along flyways over land. On rare occasions, mourning doves have been seen flying over the Gulf of Mexico, but this appears to be exceptional. Mourning doves (Z. m. carolinensis) are native to the North Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda, approximately 1,044 km (649 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (the nearest landfall); 1,236 km (768 mi) south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia; and 1,538 km (956 mi) due north of the British Virgin Islands, from which they had been migratory, but since the 1950s have become year-round residents.

Spring migration north runs from March to May. Fall migration south runs from September to November, with immatures moving first, followed by adult females and then by adult males. Migration is usually during the day, in flocks, and at low altitudes. However, not all individuals migrate. Even in Canada some mourning doves remain through winter, sustained by the presence of bird feeders.

External links 86

External links 86

Feeding 86

Like other columbines, the mourning dove drinks by suction, without lifting or tilting its head. It often gathers at drinking spots around dawn and dusk.

Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds, which make up more than 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat snails or insects. Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their crops and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow grit such as fine gravel or sand to assist with digestion. The species usually forages on the ground, walking but not hopping. At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird, with a preference for rapeseed, corn, millet, safflower, and sunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, though they will push aside ground litter; instead they eat what is readily visible. They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there.

Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others. Foods taken in preference to others include pine nuts, sweetgum seeds, and the seeds of pokeberry, amaranth, canary grass, corn, sesame, and wheat. When their favorite foods are absent, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, including buckwheat, rye, goosegrass and smartweed.

Feeding 86

Like other columbines, the mourning dove drinks by suction, without lifting or tilting its head. It often gathers at drinking spots around dawn and dusk.

Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds, which make up more than 99% of their diet. Rarely, they will eat snails or insects. Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their crops and then fly away to digest while resting. They often swallow grit such as fine gravel or sand to assist with digestion. The species usually forages on the ground, walking but not hopping. At bird feeders, mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird, with a preference for rapeseed, corn, millet, safflower, and sunflower seeds. Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds, though they will push aside ground litter; instead they eat what is readily visible. They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there.

Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others. Foods taken in preference to others include pine nuts, sweetgum seeds, and the seeds of pokeberry, amaranth, canary grass, corn, sesame, and wheat. When their favorite foods are absent, mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants, including buckwheat, rye, goosegrass and smartweed.

Migration 86

Most mourning doves migrate along flyways over land. On rare occasions, mourning doves have been seen flying over the Gulf of Mexico, but this appears to be exceptional. Mourning doves (Z. m. carolinensis) are native to the North Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda, approximately 1,044 km (649 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (the nearest landfall); 1,236 km (768 mi) south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia; and 1,538 km (956 mi) due north of the British Virgin Islands, from which they had been migratory, but since the 1950s have become year-round residents.

Spring migration north runs from March to May. Fall migration south runs from September to November, with immatures moving first, followed by adult females and then by adult males. Migration is usually during the day, in flocks, and at low altitudes. However, not all individuals migrate. Even in Canada some mourning doves remain through winter, sustained by the presence of bird feeders.

Migration 86

Most mourning doves migrate along flyways over land. On rare occasions, mourning doves have been seen flying over the Gulf of Mexico, but this appears to be exceptional. Mourning doves (Z. m. carolinensis) are native to the North Atlantic archipelago of Bermuda, approximately 1,044 km (649 mi) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (the nearest landfall); 1,236 km (768 mi) south of Cape Sable Island, Nova Scotia; and 1,538 km (956 mi) due north of the British Virgin Islands, from which they had been migratory, but since the 1950s have become year-round residents.

Spring migration north runs from March to May. Fall migration south runs from September to November, with immatures moving first, followed by adult females and then by adult males. Migration is usually during the day, in flocks, and at low altitudes. However, not all individuals migrate. Even in Canada some mourning doves remain through winter, sustained by the presence of bird feeders.

Predators and parasites 86

The primary predators of this species are diurnal birds of prey, such as falcons and hawks. During nesting, corvids, grackles, housecats, or rat snakes will prey on their eggs. Cowbirds rarely parasitize mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the mourning dove's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds.

Mourning doves can be afflicted with several different parasites and diseases, including tapeworms, nematodes, mites, and lice. The mouth-dwelling parasite Trichomonas gallinae is particularly severe. While a mourning dove will sometimes host it without symptoms, it will often cause yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that will eventually starve the host to death. Avian pox is a common, insect-vectored disease.

Predators and parasites 86

The primary predators of this species are diurnal birds of prey, such as falcons and hawks. During nesting, corvids, grackles, housecats, or rat snakes will prey on their eggs. Cowbirds rarely parasitize mourning dove nests. Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests, and the mourning dove's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds.

Mourning doves can be afflicted with several different parasites and diseases, including tapeworms, nematodes, mites, and lice. The mouth-dwelling parasite Trichomonas gallinae is particularly severe. While a mourning dove will sometimes host it without symptoms, it will often cause yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that will eventually starve the host to death. Avian pox is a common, insect-vectored disease.

Summary 87

The mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) is a member of the dove family, Columbidae. The bird is also known as the American mourning dove, the rain dove, and colloquially as the turtle dove, and was once known as the Carolina pigeon and Carolina turtledove. It is one of the most abundant and widespread of all North American birds. It is also a leading gamebird, with more than 20 million birds (up to 70 million in some years) shot annually in the U.S., both for sport and for meat. Its ability to sustain its population under such pressure is due to its prolific breeding; in warm areas, one pair may raise up to six broods of two young each in a single year. The wings make an unusual whistling sound upon take-off and landing, a form of sonation. The bird is a strong flier, capable of speeds up to 88 km/h (55 mph). It is the national bird of the British Virgin Islands.

Summary 87

The mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) is a member of the dove family, Columbidae. The bird is also known as the American mourning dove, the rain dove, and colloquially as the turtle dove, and was once known as the Carolina pigeon and Carolina turtledove. It is one of the most abundant and widespread of all North American birds. It is also a leading gamebird, with more than 20 million birds (up to 70 million in some years) shot annually in the U.S., both for sport and for meat. Its ability to sustain its population under such pressure is due to its prolific breeding; in warm areas, one pair may raise up to six broods of two young each in a single year. The wings make an unusual whistling sound upon take-off and landing, a form of sonation. The bird is a strong flier, capable of speeds up to 88 km/h (55 mph). It is the national bird of the British Virgin Islands.

Taxonomy 86

Mourning dove

Socorro doveEared doveZenaida doveWhite-winged doveWest Peruvian dove

In 1731 the English naturalists Mark Catesby described and illustrated the passenger pigeon and the mourning dove on successive pages of his The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. For the passenger pigeon he used the common name "Pigeon of passage" and the Latin Palumbus migratorius; for the mourning dove he used "Turtle of Carolina" and Turtur carolinensis. In 1743 the naturalist George Edwards included the mourning dove with the English name "long-tail'd dove" and the Latin name Columba macroura in his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Edwards's pictures of the male and female doves were drawn from live birds that had been shipped to England from the West Indies. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he conflated the two species. He used the Latin name Columba macroura introduced by Edwards as the binomial name but included a description mainly based on Catesby. He cited Edwards's description of the mourning dove and Catesby's description of the passenger pigeon. Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae again in 1766 for the twelfth edition. He dropped Columba macroura and instead coined Columba migratoria for the passenger pigeon, Columba cariolensis for the mourning dove and Columba marginata for Edwards's mourning dove.

To resolve the confusion over the binomial names of the two species, Francis Hemming proposed in 1952 that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) secure the specific name macroura for the mourning dove and migratorius for the passenger pigeon, since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description. This was accepted by the ICZN, which used its plenary powers to designate the species for the respective names in 1955.

The mourning dove is now placed in the genus Zenaida, introduced in 1838 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The genus name commemorates Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte, wife of the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte and niece of Napoleon Bonaparte. The specific epithet is from the Ancient Greek makros meaning "long" and -ouros meaning "-tailed".

The mourning dove is closely related to the eared dove (Zenaida auriculata) and the Socorro dove (Zenaida graysoni). Some authorities consider them a superspecies, and the three birds are sometimes classified in the separate genus Zenaidura, but the current classification has them as separate species in the genus Zenaida. In addition, the Socorro dove has at times been considered conspecific with the mourning dove, though several differences in behavior, call, and appearance justify separation as two different species. While the three species do form a subgroup of Zenaida, using a separate genus would interfere with the monophyly of Zenaida by making it paraphyletic.

There are five subspecies:

The ranges of most of the subspecies overlap a little, with three in the United States or Canada. The West Indian subspecies is found throughout the Greater Antilles. It has recently invaded the Florida Keys. The eastern subspecies is found mainly in eastern North America, as well as Bermuda and the Bahamas. The western subspecies is found in western North America, including parts of Mexico. The Panamanian subspecies is in Central America. The Clarion Island subspecies is found only on Clarion Island, off Mexico's Pacific coast.

The mourning dove is sometimes called the "American mourning dove" to distinguish it from the distantly related mourning collared dove (Streptopelia decipiens) of Africa. It was also formerly known as the "Carolina turtledove" and the "Carolina pigeon". The "mourning" part of its common name comes from its call.

The mourning dove was thought to be the passenger pigeon's closest living relative on morphological grounds until genetic analysis showed Patagioenas pigeons are more closely related. The mourning dove was even suggested to belong to the same genus, Ectopistes, and was listed by some authors as E. carolinensis. The passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) was hunted to extinction in the early 1900s. For this reason, the possibility of using mourning doves for cloning the passenger pigeon has been discussed.

Taxonomy 86

Mourning dove

Socorro doveEared doveZenaida doveWhite-winged doveWest Peruvian dove

In 1731 the English naturalists Mark Catesby described and illustrated the passenger pigeon and the mourning dove on successive pages of his The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. For the passenger pigeon he used the common name "Pigeon of passage" and the Latin Palumbus migratorius; for the mourning dove he used "Turtle of Carolina" and Turtur carolinensis. In 1743 the naturalist George Edwards included the mourning dove with the English name "long-tail'd dove" and the Latin name Columba macroura in his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Edwards's pictures of the male and female doves were drawn from live birds that had been shipped to England from the West Indies. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he conflated the two species. He used the Latin name Columba macroura introduced by Edwards as the binomial name but included a description mainly based on Catesby. He cited Edwards's description of the mourning dove and Catesby's description of the passenger pigeon. Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae again in 1766 for the twelfth edition. He dropped Columba macroura and instead coined Columba migratoria for the passenger pigeon, Columba cariolensis for the mourning dove and Columba marginata for Edwards's mourning dove.

To resolve the confusion over the binomial names of the two species, Francis Hemming proposed in 1952 that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) secure the specific name macroura for the mourning dove and migratorius for the passenger pigeon, since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description. This was accepted by the ICZN, which used its plenary powers to designate the species for the respective names in 1955.

The mourning dove is now placed in the genus Zenaida, introduced in 1838 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte. The genus name commemorates Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte, wife of the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte and niece of Napoleon Bonaparte. The specific epithet is from the Ancient Greek makros meaning "long" and -ouros meaning "-tailed".

The mourning dove is closely related to the eared dove (Zenaida auriculata) and the Socorro dove (Zenaida graysoni). Some authorities consider them a superspecies, and the three birds are sometimes classified in the separate genus Zenaidura, but the current classification has them as separate species in the genus Zenaida. In addition, the Socorro dove has at times been considered conspecific with the mourning dove, though several differences in behavior, call, and appearance justify separation as two different species. While the three species do form a subgroup of Zenaida, using a separate genus would interfere with the monophyly of Zenaida by making it paraphyletic.

There are five subspecies:

The ranges of most of the subspecies overlap a little, with three in the United States or Canada. The West Indian subspecies is found throughout the Greater Antilles. It has recently invaded the Florida Keys. The eastern subspecies is found mainly in eastern North America, as well as Bermuda and the Bahamas. The western subspecies is found in western North America, including parts of Mexico. The Panamanian subspecies is in Central America. The Clarion Island subspecies is found only on Clarion Island, off Mexico's Pacific coast.

The mourning dove is sometimes called the "American mourning dove" to distinguish it from the distantly related mourning collared dove (Streptopelia decipiens) of Africa. It was also formerly known as the "Carolina turtledove" and the "Carolina pigeon". The "mourning" part of its common name comes from its call.

The mourning dove was thought to be the passenger pigeon's closest living relative on morphological grounds until genetic analysis showed Patagioenas pigeons are more closely related. The mourning dove was even suggested to belong to the same genus, Ectopistes, and was listed by some authors as E. carolinensis. The passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) was hunted to extinction in the early 1900s. For this reason, the possibility of using mourning doves for cloning the passenger pigeon has been discussed.

Vocalization 86

This species' call is a distinctive, plaintive cooOOoo-woo-woo-woooo, uttered by males to attract females, and may be mistaken for the call of an owl at first. (Close up, a grating or throat-rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo.) Other sounds include a nest call (cooOOoo) by paired males to attract their mates to the nest sites, a greeting call (a soft ork) by males upon rejoining their mates, and an alarm call (a short roo-oo) by either male or female when threatened. In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear. The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take-off and landing.

Vocalization 86

This species' call is a distinctive, plaintive cooOOoo-woo-woo-woooo, uttered by males to attract females, and may be mistaken for the call of an owl at first. (Close up, a grating or throat-rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo.) Other sounds include a nest call (cooOOoo) by paired males to attract their mates to the nest sites, a greeting call (a soft ork) by males upon rejoining their mates, and an alarm call (a short roo-oo) by either male or female when threatened. In flight, the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear. The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take-off and landing.

Distribution 88

The Mourning Dove breeds across much of the North American continent south of southern Canada.

Distribution 88

The Mourning Dove breeds across much of the North American continent south of southern Canada.

Habitat 88

Mourning Doves inhabit a number of habitats across this species’ wide range, including woodland edges, bushy fields, meadows, and scrubland. This species has also adapted to living near humans, and visits agricultural fields as well as urban and suburban areas where food is available.

Habitat 88

Mourning Doves inhabit a number of habitats across this species’ wide range, including woodland edges, bushy fields, meadows, and scrubland. This species has also adapted to living near humans, and visits agricultural fields as well as urban and suburban areas where food is available.

Life History 88

Nesting Mourning Doves will nest in conifers or on the ground in a flimsy nest built of sticks and twigs. They are monogamous.

Feeding Mourning Doves almost exclusively eat seeds and grains on the ground. They eat enough seeds to fill their crops and then perch to digest.

Life History 88

Nesting Mourning Doves will nest in conifers or on the ground in a flimsy nest built of sticks and twigs. They are monogamous.

Feeding Mourning Doves almost exclusively eat seeds and grains on the ground. They eat enough seeds to fill their crops and then perch to digest.

Migration 88

Northerly-breeding populations migrate south to southern Mexico and Central America during the winter, whereas populations breeding further south in the U.S.and Mexico are non-migratory. Other non-migratory populations exist in the West Indies and at scattered locations in Central America.

Migration 88

Northerly-breeding populations migrate south to southern Mexico and Central America during the winter, whereas populations breeding further south in the U.S.and Mexico are non-migratory. Other non-migratory populations exist in the West Indies and at scattered locations in Central America.

Notes 89

Common. Tend to hang out in pairs or small groups and to stare at you like you've caught them doing something illegal. Dusky pink/brown with a long, pointed tail and black spots on the backs of the wings. Call is that sleepy coo-WOO, ooo, ooo, ooo: http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Mourning_Dove/sounds
And their wings make a loud sound when they take off.

Notes 89

Common. Tend to hang out in pairs or small groups and to stare at you like you've caught them doing something illegal. Dusky pink/brown with a long, pointed tail and black spots on the backs of the wings. Call is that sleepy coo-WOO, ooo, ooo, ooo: http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Mourning_Dove/sounds
And their wings make a loud sound when they take off.

Summary 90

General description: Mourning doves are blue-gray birds about the size of a robin. They have small heads, large breasts, and a pointed tail.

Size: Adult mourning doves are about 12 inches long.

Color: They are bluish gray with a lighter, brownish breast, and a black spot near the eye. Males have iridescent feathers on their neck. When they fly you might notice that the tail has a white tip.

Sounds: Mourning doves make a soft cooing sound that some people confuse with the hooting of an owl.

Reproduction
Mourning doves pair in the spring. After the male chooses a nesting site, the pair spends three to four days building a nest from twigs and sometimes grass. It might be on the ground or up to 20 feet up in a tree. The female lays two white eggs, which both parents incubate. After the eggs hatch about two weeks later, both parents care for the young until they leave the nest at 11 to 15 days of age. A pair may raise two families in a single summer. Mourning doves mate for life - about seven to 10 years. But if a mate is killed, they will find a new mate.

Food
Mourning doves eat seeds, fruit, and insects. They also eat grain from farmers' fields.

Predators
Raccoons, cats, falcons and other birds of prey. Snakes sometimes eat eggs and nestlings.

Range and range
Mourning doves are common along country roads, and are also found in towns and open forests. In winter mourning doves migrate south; however, some can be seen year round in southern Minnesota.

Population and management
Doves are one of the most common birds in the United States, and dove hunting is legal in Minnesota during the dove hunting season each year.

Fun facts
Have you ever heard of a bird giving milk? Mourning doves have a special structure in their throats in which they make food for their young. Called "pigeon milk" or "crop milk," the food looks and smells like cheese. It has some of the nutrients found in cow's milk.

Summary 90

General description: Mourning doves are blue-gray birds about the size of a robin. They have small heads, large breasts, and a pointed tail.

Size: Adult mourning doves are about 12 inches long.

Color: They are bluish gray with a lighter, brownish breast, and a black spot near the eye. Males have iridescent feathers on their neck. When they fly you might notice that the tail has a white tip.

Sounds: Mourning doves make a soft cooing sound that some people confuse with the hooting of an owl.

Reproduction
Mourning doves pair in the spring. After the male chooses a nesting site, the pair spends three to four days building a nest from twigs and sometimes grass. It might be on the ground or up to 20 feet up in a tree. The female lays two white eggs, which both parents incubate. After the eggs hatch about two weeks later, both parents care for the young until they leave the nest at 11 to 15 days of age. A pair may raise two families in a single summer. Mourning doves mate for life - about seven to 10 years. But if a mate is killed, they will find a new mate.

Food
Mourning doves eat seeds, fruit, and insects. They also eat grain from farmers' fields.

Predators
Raccoons, cats, falcons and other birds of prey. Snakes sometimes eat eggs and nestlings.

Range and range
Mourning doves are common along country roads, and are also found in towns and open forests. In winter mourning doves migrate south; however, some can be seen year round in southern Minnesota.

Population and management
Doves are one of the most common birds in the United States, and dove hunting is legal in Minnesota during the dove hunting season each year.

Fun facts
Have you ever heard of a bird giving milk? Mourning doves have a special structure in their throats in which they make food for their young. Called "pigeon milk" or "crop milk," the food looks and smells like cheese. It has some of the nutrients found in cow's milk.

Summary 91

General description: Mourning doves are blue-gray birds about the size of a robin. They have small heads, large breasts, and a pointed tail.

Size: Adult mourning doves are about 12 inches long.

Color: They are bluish gray with a lighter, brownish breast, and a black spot near the eye. Males have iridescent feathers on their neck. When they fly you might notice that the tail has a white tip.

Sounds: Mourning doves make a soft cooing sound that some people confuse with the hooting of an owl.

Reproduction
Mourning doves pair in the spring. After the male chooses a nesting site, the pair spends three to four days building a nest from twigs and sometimes grass. It might be on the ground or up to 20 feet up in a tree. The female lays two white eggs, which both parents incubate. After the eggs hatch about two weeks later, both parents care for the young until they leave the nest at 11 to 15 days of age. A pair may raise two families in a single summer. Mourning doves mate for life - about seven to 10 years. But if a mate is killed, they will find a new mate.

Food
Mourning doves eat seeds, fruit, and insects. They also eat grain from farmers' fields.

Predators
Raccoons, cats, falcons and other birds of prey. Snakes sometimes eat eggs and nestlings.

Range and range
Mourning doves are common along country roads, and are also found in towns and open forests. In winter mourning doves migrate south; however, some can be seen year round in southern Minnesota.

Population and management
Doves are one of the most common birds in the United States, and dove hunting is legal in Minnesota during the dove hunting season each year.

Fun facts
Have you ever heard of a bird giving milk? Mourning doves have a special structure in their throats in which they make food for their young. Called "pigeon milk" or "crop milk," the food looks and smells like cheese. It has some of the nutrients found in cow's milk.

Summary 91

General description: Mourning doves are blue-gray birds about the size of a robin. They have small heads, large breasts, and a pointed tail.

Size: Adult mourning doves are about 12 inches long.

Color: They are bluish gray with a lighter, brownish breast, and a black spot near the eye. Males have iridescent feathers on their neck. When they fly you might notice that the tail has a white tip.

Sounds: Mourning doves make a soft cooing sound that some people confuse with the hooting of an owl.

Reproduction
Mourning doves pair in the spring. After the male chooses a nesting site, the pair spends three to four days building a nest from twigs and sometimes grass. It might be on the ground or up to 20 feet up in a tree. The female lays two white eggs, which both parents incubate. After the eggs hatch about two weeks later, both parents care for the young until they leave the nest at 11 to 15 days of age. A pair may raise two families in a single summer. Mourning doves mate for life - about seven to 10 years. But if a mate is killed, they will find a new mate.

Food
Mourning doves eat seeds, fruit, and insects. They also eat grain from farmers' fields.

Predators
Raccoons, cats, falcons and other birds of prey. Snakes sometimes eat eggs and nestlings.

Range and range
Mourning doves are common along country roads, and are also found in towns and open forests. In winter mourning doves migrate south; however, some can be seen year round in southern Minnesota.

Population and management
Doves are one of the most common birds in the United States, and dove hunting is legal in Minnesota during the dove hunting season each year.

Fun facts
Have you ever heard of a bird giving milk? Mourning doves have a special structure in their throats in which they make food for their young. Called "pigeon milk" or "crop milk," the food looks and smells like cheese. It has some of the nutrients found in cow's milk.

Vocalization 92

Low mournful (hence its name) coo-ah, coo, coo, coo.

(c) 2015 National Audubon Society, Inc., 225 Varick Street, 7th Floor, New York, New York 10014, USA. All rights reserved.

Vocalization 92

Low mournful (hence its name) coo-ah, coo, coo, coo.

(c) 2015 National Audubon Society, Inc., 225 Varick Street, 7th Floor, New York, New York 10014, USA. All rights reserved.

Where on campus? 88

Commonly seen in central campus area foraging in lawns.

Where on campus? 88

Commonly seen in central campus area foraging in lawns.

Fontes e Créditos

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  13. (c) Judy Gallagher, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), https://www.flickr.com/photos/52450054@N04/39651399705/
  14. (c) David Illig, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC-SA), https://www.flickr.com/photos/primeval/50138420797/
  15. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/49897350268/
  16. (c) Trish Hartmann, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), https://www.flickr.com/photos/21078769@N00/50066961351/
  17. (c) Judy Gallagher, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), https://www.flickr.com/photos/52450054@N04/49395069712/
  18. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/33609768968/
  19. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/49367748346/
  20. (c) Dennis Church, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC-ND), https://www.flickr.com/photos/dfc_pcola/42451417751/
  21. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/50075546876/
  22. (c) A. Jarrett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC-ND), https://www.flickr.com/photos/ajarrett/49949336126/
  23. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/50153772147/
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  28. (c) Dennis Church, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC-ND), https://www.flickr.com/photos/dfc_pcola/26595577703/
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  32. (c) sergio niebla, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://www.flickr.com/photos/22048801@N03/27055862310/
  33. (c) Dendroica cerulea, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC-SA), https://www.flickr.com/photos/dendroica/24399170836/
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  40. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/32321173257/
  41. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/50161960868/
  42. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/43631611620/
  43. (c) David Seibold, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-NC), https://www.flickr.com/photos/stillugly/50052077428/
  44. (c) Chris English, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2014,_Mourning_Dove,_Zenaida_macroura_-_panoramio.jpg
  45. (c) Korye Logan, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morning_Dove_(Zenaida_Macroura)_in_flight.png
  46. (c) Clinton & Charles Robertson, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_(126214789).jpg
  47. (c) gailhampshire, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove._Zenaida_macroura_(24393679128).jpg
  48. (c) gailhampshire, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove._Zenaida_macroura_(24393680408).jpg
  49. (c) gailhampshire, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove._Zenaida_macroura_-_Flickr_-_gailhampshire.jpg
  50. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura).jpg
  51. (c) Andrew C, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_(12001896055).jpg
  52. (c) Dominic Sherony, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_(3483334485).jpg
  53. (c) Tony Alter, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_(3815262209).jpg
  54. (c) Ron Knight, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_(8082758056).jpg
  55. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Guelph,_Ontario_01.jpg
  56. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Guelph,_Ontario_02.jpg
  57. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Kitchener,_Ontario.jpg
  58. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Kitchener,_Ontario_01.jpg
  59. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Kitchener,_Ontario_2019-07-28.jpg
  60. (c) Sivaprasad R.L, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_-pair.jpg
  61. (c) DickDaniels, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_(Zenaida_macroura)_RWD.jpg
  62. (c) Chris English, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_-_Zenaida_macroura,_2013_-_panoramio.jpg
  63. (c) Judy Gallagher, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_-_Zenaida_macroura,_Biscayne_National_Park,_Homestead,_Florida_(39651399705).jpg
  64. (c) Judy Gallagher, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_-_Zenaida_macroura,_Occoquan_Bay_National_Wildlife_Refuge,_Woodbridge,_Virginia_(28233586289).jpg
  65. (c) Judy Gallagher, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_-_Zenaida_macroura,_Woodbridge,_Virginia.jpg
  66. (c) Len Worthington, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Arizona_(16275111089).jpg
  67. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_1.jpg
  68. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_2.jpg
  69. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_3.jpg
  70. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_4.jpg
  71. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_5.jpg
  72. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_6.jpg
  73. (c) Laslovarga, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Dove_Zenaida_macroura_Ontario_7.jpg
  74. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Doves_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Cambridge,_Ontario_01.jpg
  75. (c) Ryan Hodnett, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_Doves_(Zenaida_macroura)_-_Cambridge,_Ontario_02.jpg
  76. SterlingHerron, sem restrições de direitos de autor conhecidas (domínio público), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_dove_(Zenaida_macroura).JPG
  77. (c) Mykola Swarnyk, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mourning_dove_Zenaida_macroura_Lambton_Woods.jpg
  78. (c) Amado Demesa, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paloma_Huilota,_Mourning_Dove,_Zenaida_macroura_(15567912977).jpg
  79. (c) Ingrid Taylar, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Dove_Above_(Zenaida_macroura).jpg
  80. (c) User:Valérie Luc, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tourterelle_triste_(Zenaida_macroura).jpg
  81. (c) Octavio Telis, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zenaida_Macroura.JPG
  82. Leupold, James C. , U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, sem restrições de direitos de autor conhecidas (domínio público), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zenaida_macroura.jpg
  83. (c) anonymous, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zenaida_macroura1.jpg
  84. (c) Mdf, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zenaida_macroura2.jpg
  85. Adaptado por Tricia LeBlanc de uma obra de (c) Wikipedia, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mourning_dove
  86. (c) Wikipedia, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mourning_dove
  87. (c) Wikipedia, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenaida_macroura
  88. (c) gillian360, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/25863
  89. (c) sea-kangaroo, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/13328
  90. (c) Minnesota Scientific and Natural Areas, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/1175541
  91. (c) Minnesota Scientific and Natural Areas, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/1172432
  92. (c) Craftsbury Outdoor Center, alguns direitos reservados (CC BY-SA), https://www.inaturalist.org/guide_taxa/340528

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